WAYS TO TALK ABOUT ETHICS AND MORALS IN YOUR PAPER

1. GENERAL ETHICAL FOUNDATIONS
Thoese concepts or ideas do not by themselves constitute any one theory but  should be considered as a prerequisite to most satisfactory  theories. These values by themselves do not constitute a justification or defense of your position; that is done through the application of an ethical theory.

Rationality: All legitimate moral acts must be supportable by generally accepted reasons.

Least Harm: When you must choose between evils, choose the least evil.

Consistency: Moral reasons, including moral actions, if they are valid, are binding on all people at all times in all places given the same relevant circumstances.

Impartiality: This principle forbids us from treating one person different than another when there is not a good reason to do so. We set aside our personal interests.

Openness: When examining moral differences between ourselves and other individuals or cultures, we may discover that it is we, not they, who are morally wrong. We must be open to changing our view .

2. DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS
Ethical principles or values are statements of human obligations or duties that are generally accepted and are the expression of normative ethical systems. The following is a list of commonly recognized definitions, ideas, values, and concepts. A value and a principle are very often interchangeable. For example, I may value "dignity" and have as one of the main operating principles in my life the goal to always treat others with the dignity I desire. The following is not meant to be a definitive list.

Ethics: the conscious reflection on our moral beliefs and attitudes though the use of normative ethical theories .

Value: what we choose as worthwhile or believe to have merit, in a general or broad sense. Values should be freely and thoughtfully chosen.

Value System: the ways in which we organize, rank, prioritize, and make decisions based on our values.

Virtues: values turned into actions .

Mores: the guidelines of a particular society. Mores are often relative to the needs of a particular society or culture (cultural relativism).

Moral Rule: a specific guideline for action that justifies our moral judgments and actions in our everyday lives. Moral rules tell us what we ought to do and are often established by tradition, religion, laws, etc.

Morality: the rules and guidelines, the mores, which an individual or a group has about what is right or wrong, good or evil.

Ethical Principle: they are part of a normative theory that justifies or defends moral rules and/or moral judgments. Ethical principles are not contingent upon cultural features such as tradition, religion, or law. For example, a Normative Ethical Principle such as the principle of utility (Utilitarian ethics) or the categorical imperative (Kantian ethics) is not subject to one's subjective viewpoints. Ethics justify or ground morality.

Normative Ethics: attempt to answer specific moral questions concerning what people should do or believe. The word "normative" refers to guidelines or norms and is often used interchangeably with the word "prescriptive." Normative ethical theories are Kantian ethics, Virtue ethics, Utilitarian ethics, and so on.

--Examples of Virtues or Values:

Autonomy: the duty to maximize the individual's right to make his or her own decisions.

Beneficence: the duty to do good both individually and for all.

Confidentiality: the duty to respect privacy of information and action.

Equality: the duty to view all people as moral equals.

Finality: the duty to take action that may override the demands of law, religion, and social customs.

Justice: the duty to treat all fairly, distributing the risks and benefits equally.

Nonmaleficence: the duty to cause no harm, both individually and for all.

Understanding/Tolerance: the duty to understand and to accept other viewpoints if reason dictates doing so is warranted.

Publicity: the duty to take actions based on ethical standards that must be known and recognized by all who are involved.

Respect for persons: the duty to honor others, their rights, and their responsibilities. Showing respect others implies that we do not treat them as a mere means to our end.

Universality: the duty to take actions that hold for everyone, regardless of time, place, or people involved. This concept is similar to the Categorical Imperative.

Veracity: the duty to tell the truth.